Category: Types of Evidence

Categories
K-12 Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

Social and Emotional Learning Programs and Students’ Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

A recent meta-analysis conducted by Hung and colleagues examined the effectiveness of school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs for K–12 students’ prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior is conceptualized as any voluntary behavior intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, comforting, and defending others. The researchers analyzed 66 studies and 157 effect sizes involving 52,914 youth.

Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges’ g, which includes a small sample bias correction to the effect size estimate to account for small studies. Because most studies contributed multiple effect sizes, the authors used a correlated effects (CE) model with robust variance estimation (RVE) to account for within-study dependence among effect sizes. Approach refers to whether an SEL program takes a curricular, interactional, structural, or combined approach. To examine whether the effect of SEL programs on prosocial behavior was moderated by sample, program, methodological, and publication characteristics, the authors conducted a mixed-effects meta-regression analysis with all moderators added to the model simultaneously. In total, they investigated 14 moderating variables such as approach, school level, urbanicity, and dosage.

The remaining moderating variables yielded no statistically significant differences. Results indicated that effects for rural, suburban, and combination areas were not statistically different from samples from urban areas. Results also indicated that effects were not statistically significantly different between samples with higher versus lower proportions of students qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch. Effects of curricular and curricular combined with structural or interactional approaches were not significantly different from SEL programs that only used an interactional approach. Findings indicated that effects of studies delivered at Tier 2 were not statistically different from Tier 1 studies. Studies that used a quasi-experimental design and single-group pre–post design yielded similar effects on prosocial behavior compared to studies that used a randomized controlled trial. Effects were similar across different types of prosocial behavior measures. Effects from studies that did not meet baseline equivalence were not statistically significantly different from studies that met baseline equivalence, and effects from studies that did not report implementation fidelity were not statistically significantly different from studies that reported fidelity of implementation. Results indicated that effects from studies conducted across earlier decades were not statistically significantly different from studies conducted more recently, and effects were similar for peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed studies.

The authors further noted that most studies were conducted with elementary school children (56%), the majority implemented universal Tier 1 interventions (89%), and a curricular approach was the most common (77%). Additionally, a considerable proportion of studies did not report key demographic data, with 71% failing to report free or reduced-price lunch rates.

A key implication for practice from this meta-analytic review is that school-based SEL programs are effective in promoting K–12 students’ prosocial behavior, and that “more is not necessarily better” — a moderate dosage and moderate duration may be most ideal. Future policy and practice should take into account this “less is more” finding. At the same time, more research is needed involving secondary schools, rural schools, non-curricular approaches, and diverse student populations in order to fully understand the effectiveness of SEL programs.

Source (Open Access): Hung, C., Brass, N. R., Brockmeier, L., Bergin, C., Imler, M., & Luper, S. B. (2026). Social and Emotional Learning Programs and Students’ Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 00346543261438462.

https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543261438462… Read the rest

Categories
Effective Teaching Approach Secondary School Education

Creative Visual Programming for Secondary Students: Enjoyment, Self-Efficacy, and Gender Differences

Smit et al. (2025) examine how students’ enjoyment during visual programming tasks relates to their self-efficacy beliefs and gender differences in programming confidence. Grounded in Pekrun’s control-value theory of achievement emotions, the study focuses on whether positive emotional experiences in programming can strengthen students’ beliefs in their ability to program. The research was conducted in a daylong visual programming workshop titled “Creativity in Science and Technology-Smart Textiles”, where secondary school students programmed LED matrices connected to micro:bit devices (small programmable computers commonly used in STEM and coding education) and applied them to creative, real-world tasks such as smart shirts and bicycle shirts.

The study involved 269 lower-secondary students from 16 Swiss classes in Grades 7 to 9. Students completed pre- and post-questionnaires measuring self-efficacy for visual programming, while their momentary enjoyment was measured four times during the workshop through experience sampling. The course was structured to move from more guided tasks in the morning, including Morse code and debugging activities, to more open and creative tasks in the afternoon, such as designing smart textile applications. Structural equation modelling, including latent state-trait theory and latent growth curve models, was used to examine changes in enjoyment and self-efficacy over the day.

Results show that students’ enjoyment remained relatively stable across individual tasks and was largely shaped by their general enjoyment of programming rather than by specific task situations. However, students with lower initial enjoyment showed stronger increases during later, more creative tasks. Girls reported lower enjoyment than boys at the beginning of the workshop, but their enjoyment increased more strongly over time, narrowing the gender gap. Both girls and boys showed increased self-efficacy for visual programming by the end of the course. Although girls initially reported substantially lower self-efficacy than boys, the gender difference was no longer significant in the final model after the workshop.

Overall, the findings suggest that application-oriented and creative visual programming activities can foster students’ confidence in programming, especially among girls. The combination of smart textiles, visual coding, debugging practice, and open-ended design tasks appeared to create a motivating learning environment that supported positive emotions and self-efficacy development. The study highlights the importance of designing programming instruction around authentic, creative, and personally meaningful tasks, rather than treating programming as an abstract or purely technical activity.

Source (Open Access): Smit, R., Schmid, R., & Robin, N. (2025). Experiencing enjoyment in visual programming tasks promotes self‐efficacy and reduces the gender gap. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(3), 1231-1247.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13523… Read the rest

Categories
Kindergarten Social and Motivational Outcomes

An experimental study exploring human–AI complementarity in early social-emotional learning

A recent experimental study by Raave and colleagues employed a mixed factorial design to compare a pedagogical conversational agent (PCA) with human educators in facilitating early social-emotional learning (SEL). Eighteen international early childhood and primary teachers and an AI-driven PCA each conducted three standardized story-based SEL activities with a static AI child named “Ali,” designed to exhibit challenging characteristics including distractibility and limited empathy. This controlled comparison yielded 108 total observations across activities focusing on prosocial behavior, perspective-taking, and healthy guilt induction.

Expert raters, blind to facilitator type, coded interactions for three evidence-based pedagogical support techniques—cognitive-conceptual, procedural, and emotional support—using binary scales, and assessed broader teaching quality across six dimensions adapted from the Danielson Framework for Teaching on a 1-4 scale. The study maintained high inter-rater reliability across all measures (Cohen’s κ=.65−.80 for support techniques; quadratic weighted κ=.61−.76 for quality indicators).

Results revealed significant differences in facilitation approaches. Mixed ANOVA showed educators used more support techniques overall (M=7.57 vs. M=5.47) and substantially more cognitive-conceptual support than the PCA (M=15.28 vs. M=6.46, p<.001), while the PCA provided slightly more procedural support (p=.026). Quality ratings demonstrated complementary strengths: the PCA scored higher in relational domains such as respect and rapport (d=1.86) and flexibility (d=1.06), whereas educators excelled in intellectual engagement including questioning techniques (d=0.72) and engaging students in learning (d=0.96).

The findings reveal meaningful pedagogical asymmetry suggesting human-AI complementarity rather than competition. The PCA maintained consistent emotional validation and procedural structure but tended to be “caring but pedagogically shallow,” while educators provided deeper cognitive-conceptual scaffolding and moral reasoning guidance with greater affective variability. The authors propose a strategic division of labor where PCAs manage routine structuring and baseline emotional support, while human educators focus on complex social-emotional reasoning and ethical development. Future research should explore direct co-facilitation models in authentic classroom settings.

Source (Open Access): Raave, D. K., Colasante, T., Roa, E. R., Martinez, J. C. R., Li, H., Mukherjee, S., & Malti, T. (2026). An experimental study exploring human–AI complementarity in early social-emotional learning. Computers and Education Open, 100331.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2026.100331… Read the rest

Categories
Primary School Education Programme Evaluation

The effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: A cluster randomized controlled trial

Student leadership is widely recognized as an important life skill associated with academic, psychological, and social benefits. However, school-based leadership opportunities are often offered to students who already display leadership qualities, while those who may benefit most from such opportunities are less likely to participate. Existing leadership research has also focused mainly on adults, leaving limited evidence on how leadership skills can be developed among young students. To address this gap, this study evaluated Learning to Lead, a peer-led, school-based leadership and fundamental movement skills program grounded in transformational leadership theory.

The study used a two-arm cluster randomized controlled trial design involving 20 elementary schools in Australia. A total of 1,898 students participated, including 952 older students as Leaders and 946 younger students as Peers. Schools were randomized to either the intervention group or a wait-list control group after baseline assessment. The intervention consisted of teacher professional development, six leadership lessons delivered by trained teachers to student Leaders, and twelve peer-led fundamental movement skill sessions delivered by Leaders to younger Peers. Outcomes were assessed at baseline and immediately after the intervention. Leader outcomes included teacher-reported leadership effectiveness, self-reported leadership ability, leadership self-efficacy, wellbeing, and classroom time on-task. Peer outcomes included physical activity, perceived and actual motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscular fitness.

The results showed that the L2L program produced significant benefits for both Leaders and Peers. For Leaders, teacher-reported leadership effectiveness improved significantly in the intervention group compared with the control group, with an adjusted between-group difference of 0.56 units and an effect size of d = 0.39. The intervention also produced positive spillover effects: Leaders showed significantly greater wellbeing, with an adjusted difference of 0.77 units, and their classroom time on-task increased by approximately 7 percentage points. However, the program did not significantly improve Leaders’ self-reported leadership ability or leadership self-efficacy. For Peers, the intervention significantly improved perceived motor competence, with an adjusted difference of 1.12 units, increased daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity by 3.02 minutes per day, and improved cardiorespiratory fitness by 2.57 laps. Moderator analysis showed that the effect on perceived motor competence was significant for both boys and girls, but stronger among boys. However, the program did not significantly improve Peers’ actual motor competence or muscular fitness.

Taken together, the findings suggest that peer-led leadership programs can improve student leaders’ observable leadership effectiveness and generate broader benefits for their wellbeing and classroom engagement. The program also benefited younger peers by improving their perceived motor competence, physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness. These findings indicate that school-based peer-led interventions can meaningfully integrate leadership development with physical activity promotion. Nevertheless, the study has several limitations, including short-term outcome assessment, possible teacher expectancy effects in ratings of student leadership, possible awareness of group allocation among video coders, and the challenge of relying on student Leaders who were still developing their own leadership and movement skills. Future research should examine the long-term effects of such programs and consider providing stronger instructional support for student Leaders.

Source (Open Access): Wade, L., Beauchamp, M. R., Nathan, N., Smith, J. J., Leahy, A. A., Bao, R., Kennedy, S. G., Boyer, J., Diallo, T. M. O., Beacroft, S., & Lubans, D. R. (2026). Effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: The Learning to Lead cluster randomized controlled trial. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 102444.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2026.102444… Read the rest

Categories
Effective Teaching Approach Kindergarten

From Worksheets to Workstations: The Impact of Play and Choice in Kindergarten Classrooms

Although high-stakes testing has increasingly shifted early childhood education toward teacher-directed academic instruction, Rodriguez-Meehan et al. (2025) argue that play and meaningful choices remain essential for children’s development. Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT), Rodriguez-Meehan et al. (2025) explore the integration of play- and choice-based workstations in a kindergarten classroom to understand how fostering autonomy, competence, and relatedness through self-directed play influences student motivation and behavior.

To capture a comprehensive view of this transition, Rodriguez-Meehan et al. (2025) conducted a qualitative case study in a public charter school in the Southeastern United States, focusing on one kindergarten teacher and a subset of her students. Data collection included four comprehensive classroom observations, a semi-structured individual interview with the teacher, and interactive focus group interviews with the children. Additionally, the research team analyzed student artifacts, such as drawings and writings. The collected data underwent holistic analysis to identify emerging themes reflecting the participants’ experiences.

The analysis revealed three primary themes regarding the classroom’s transformation. First, the teacher viewed the implementation as highly successful, noting drastic improvements in academic achievement, student engagement, and classroom behavior. Second, the transition required a “balancing act,” as the teacher navigated initial structural barriers like managing physical space and rationing access to highly preferred activities. Third, the children demonstrated immense joy and ownership over their learning, repeatedly expressing enthusiasm about picking their own workstations and peers.

Rodriguez-Meehan et al. (2025) conclude that replacing traditional morning worksheets with free play and adaptable choice centers effectively supports children’s intrinsic motivation and social-emotional needs. Although implementing these pedagogies requires teacher flexibility and a willingness to relinquish some control, the benefits strongly align with the principles of self-determination theory. Ultimately, the study advocates for school administrators, educators, and families to actively support and integrate more daily play and choice-based frameworks in early childhood environments.

Source (Open Access): Rodriguez-Meehan, M., Chobrda, T., Haughton, V. J., & Franz, M. (2025). “The best part of their day”: Play and choice in kindergarten. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 23(2), 164-178.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X241293909… Read the rest

Categories
Maths and Science Learning Primary School Education

Generative AI and Multimodal Data for Educational Feedback: Insights from Embodied Math Learning

Cosentino et al. (2025) explore the role of generative AI (GenAI) in providing formative feedback within embodied mathematics learning environments. Building on embodied cognition theory and advances in multimodal learning technologies, the study examines whether AI-generated feedback can effectively support students’ learning processes compared to traditional teacher feedback. The research focuses on children learning integer operations through a body-scale digital number line, where physical movement is integrated into mathematical reasoning.

Using a between-group experimental design, 34 students aged 11-13 were assigned to either a GenAI feedback condition or a human teacher feedback condition. Students interacted with a multisensory learning environment (MOVES), where their movements were tracked and used to generate real-time, adaptive feedback through a GPT-4–based system. Multimodal data, including eye-tracking, system logs, and behavioral measures, were collected to assess task performance, cognitive load, and information processing patterns.

Results show no significant differences in task-based learning performance between the GenAI and teacher feedback conditions. However, students receiving GenAI feedback demonstrated significantly lower cognitive load and more balanced information processing strategies, as indicated by eye-tracking metrics such as pupil dilation and the Information Processing Index (IPI). In contrast, students in the teacher feedback condition exhibited higher cognitive load and more frequent attention shifts toward irrelevant or incorrect options, suggesting less efficient processing.

Overall, the findings highlight the potential of GenAI as an effective tool for delivering structured, adaptive feedback that enhances learning efficiency without compromising learning outcomes. Rather than replacing teachers, the study emphasizes the value of hybrid intelligence approaches that integrate AI and human feedback to optimize learning experiences. The results provide important implications for designing AI-enhanced, multimodal learning environments that support cognitive engagement and personalized learning in mathematics education.

Source (Open Access): Cosentino, G., Anton, J., Sharma, K., Gelsomini, M., Giannakos, M., & Abrahamson, D. (2025). Generative AI and multimodal data for educational feedback: Insights from embodied math learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(5), 1686-1709.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13587… Read the rest