Categories
K-12 Education Programme Evaluation

The Effects of Integrated STEM Education on K12 Students’ Achievements: A Meta-Analysis

Integrated STEM education refers to T&L of scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical knowledge and skills in integrative ways, emphasizing the connection between abstract knowledge and real-world problems. Integrated STEM education is characterized by four core features: multidisciplinary integration, real-world application, authentic inquiry or design-based practice, and active student learning. Based on 124 extracted and coded studies (2010-2022), Chen et al.’s (2025) meta-analysis reports on the effects of integrated STEM education based on three main types of interventions: (1) adopting integrated STEM education, (2) using extra teaching and learning strategies to enhance integrated STEM education, and (3) using specific learning technologies to support integrated STEM education.

All three types of interventions yielded a medium effect on knowledge acquisition and a small effect on student perceptions. Besides, adopting integrated STEM education had a large effect on cognitive skills; using extra teaching and learning strategies in integrated STEM programs produced a medium effect on cognitive skills and problem-solving task performance; using specific learning technologies had a small effect on problem-solving task performance. Some factors, such as task type (inquiry or design-based task) and program duration, may influence STEM learning outcomes.

To maximize the efficacy of integrated STEM education, practitioners should embed its four core characteristics into curriculum design while favoring short-to-medium duration programs (one month to a semester). Educators must carefully balance hands-on design and minds-on inquiry tasks by providing necessary scaffolding tailored to students’ prior knowledge. Furthermore, deploying targeted instructional strategies and learning technologies can enhance engagement with complex, real-world problems. Ultimately, evaluating these programs requires a multidimensional approach that prioritizes skill development and practical problem-solving performance alongside traditional knowledge acquisition.

Source (Open Access): Chen, B., Chen, J., Wang, M., Tsai, C. C., & Kirschner, P. A. (2026). The effects of integrated STEM education on K12 students’ achievements: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(2), 619-668.

https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543251318297… Read the rest

Categories
Language Development Primary School Education Secondary School Education

The Effects of Interventions for Students With Reading Difficulties in Grades 4–12

Killingly and colleagues conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of school-based interventions for students with reading difficulties in Grades 4–12 published between 2011 and 2023. The study examined the overall effectiveness of these interventions and further tested whether study characteristics, sample characteristics, and intervention characteristics moderated their effects. A total of 104 publications and 586 effect sizes were included, representing 97,114 participants. Methodologically, the authors used a Correlated and Hierarchical Effects model combined with robust variance estimation to address dependency among multiple outcomes and effect sizes within the same study, while also estimating effects across overall reading performance and specific reading domains.

The results showed that, overall, reading interventions had a small but significant positive effect for students with reading difficulties in Grades 4–12, with an overall effect size of g = 0.212 (95% CI [0.163, 0.261], p < .001). This suggests that although the gains were not large, these interventions did produce reliable improvements in students’ reading performance. Across specific reading domains, the strongest effects were found for vocabulary (g = 0.422), followed by decoding/word recognition (g = 0.199) and reading comprehension (g = 0.187). Fluency showed only a very small but significant effect (g = 0.080), spelling was not significant (g = 0.015), and phonological processing, although showing a larger effect size on the surface (g = 0.531), did not reach significance and was therefore considered unstable. Overall heterogeneity was very high (I² = 89.71%), indicating that differences in study design and sample characteristics had a substantial influence on intervention effectiveness. GRADE assessment further suggested that the overall quality of evidence ranged from moderate to high, with the strongest evidence for fluency, moderate evidence for vocabulary, and moderate-to-low evidence for phonological processing.

Moderator analyses showed that intervention effects varied according to both study and sample conditions. Overall, more recently published studies showed stronger effects (β = 0.015), and journal articles produced significantly larger effects (g = 0.268) than research reports (g = 0.062). In terms of sample characteristics, low socioeconomic status was not significantly related to overall effects, but a higher proportion of students with learning disabilities was associated with slightly stronger effects (β = 0.006). For students from a language background other than English, overall differences were not significant, but in the vocabulary domain, a greater proportion of such students was associated with stronger effects (β = 0.016), suggesting that vocabulary instruction may be particularly important for this group. Regarding intervention design, intervention focus, duration, and measurement type were all significant moderators. Comprehension-focused interventions showed relatively strong overall effects (g = 0.313), multicomponent interventions showed stable effects (g = 0.178), and word study interventions had smaller effects (g = 0.096), whereas vocabulary-focused interventions, though fewer in number, showed the largest effect (g = 0.716). Shorter interventions were actually associated with stronger effects, with effect sizes of g = 0.405 for 0–5 hours and g = 0.409 for 6–15 hours. In addition, researcher-developed measures yielded significantly larger effects (g = 0.542) than standardized measures (g = 0.127). Although there was no significant overall difference between interventions delivered by teachers and those delivered by researchers, in vocabulary interventions teacher-led delivery produced stronger effects (g = 0.733) than researcher-led delivery (g = 0.249), suggesting that classroom teachers may hold particular advantages in providing vocabulary support.

Overall, this study shows that reading interventions for older students with reading difficulties are indeed effective, although the magnitude of their effects depends on the reading domain being targeted and on the design of the intervention. Vocabulary and reading comprehension appear to be the most promising focuses, while multicomponent interventions also demonstrate stable benefits. By … Read the rest

Categories
K-12 Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

Social and Emotional Learning Programs and Students’ Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

A recent meta-analysis conducted by Hung and colleagues examined the effectiveness of school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs for K–12 students’ prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior is conceptualized as any voluntary behavior intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, comforting, and defending others. The researchers analyzed 66 studies and 157 effect sizes involving 52,914 youth.

Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges’ g, which includes a small sample bias correction to the effect size estimate to account for small studies. Because most studies contributed multiple effect sizes, the authors used a correlated effects (CE) model with robust variance estimation (RVE) to account for within-study dependence among effect sizes. Approach refers to whether an SEL program takes a curricular, interactional, structural, or combined approach. To examine whether the effect of SEL programs on prosocial behavior was moderated by sample, program, methodological, and publication characteristics, the authors conducted a mixed-effects meta-regression analysis with all moderators added to the model simultaneously. In total, they investigated 14 moderating variables such as approach, school level, urbanicity, and dosage.

The remaining moderating variables yielded no statistically significant differences. Results indicated that effects for rural, suburban, and combination areas were not statistically different from samples from urban areas. Results also indicated that effects were not statistically significantly different between samples with higher versus lower proportions of students qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch. Effects of curricular and curricular combined with structural or interactional approaches were not significantly different from SEL programs that only used an interactional approach. Findings indicated that effects of studies delivered at Tier 2 were not statistically different from Tier 1 studies. Studies that used a quasi-experimental design and single-group pre–post design yielded similar effects on prosocial behavior compared to studies that used a randomized controlled trial. Effects were similar across different types of prosocial behavior measures. Effects from studies that did not meet baseline equivalence were not statistically significantly different from studies that met baseline equivalence, and effects from studies that did not report implementation fidelity were not statistically significantly different from studies that reported fidelity of implementation. Results indicated that effects from studies conducted across earlier decades were not statistically significantly different from studies conducted more recently, and effects were similar for peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed studies.

The authors further noted that most studies were conducted with elementary school children (56%), the majority implemented universal Tier 1 interventions (89%), and a curricular approach was the most common (77%). Additionally, a considerable proportion of studies did not report key demographic data, with 71% failing to report free or reduced-price lunch rates.

A key implication for practice from this meta-analytic review is that school-based SEL programs are effective in promoting K–12 students’ prosocial behavior, and that “more is not necessarily better” — a moderate dosage and moderate duration may be most ideal. Future policy and practice should take into account this “less is more” finding. At the same time, more research is needed involving secondary schools, rural schools, non-curricular approaches, and diverse student populations in order to fully understand the effectiveness of SEL programs.

Source (Open Access): Hung, C., Brass, N. R., Brockmeier, L., Bergin, C., Imler, M., & Luper, S. B. (2026). Social and Emotional Learning Programs and Students’ Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 00346543261438462.

https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543261438462… Read the rest

Categories
Effective Teaching Approach Secondary School Education

Creative Visual Programming for Secondary Students: Enjoyment, Self-Efficacy, and Gender Differences

Smit et al. (2025) examine how students’ enjoyment during visual programming tasks relates to their self-efficacy beliefs and gender differences in programming confidence. Grounded in Pekrun’s control-value theory of achievement emotions, the study focuses on whether positive emotional experiences in programming can strengthen students’ beliefs in their ability to program. The research was conducted in a daylong visual programming workshop titled “Creativity in Science and Technology-Smart Textiles”, where secondary school students programmed LED matrices connected to micro:bit devices (small programmable computers commonly used in STEM and coding education) and applied them to creative, real-world tasks such as smart shirts and bicycle shirts.

The study involved 269 lower-secondary students from 16 Swiss classes in Grades 7 to 9. Students completed pre- and post-questionnaires measuring self-efficacy for visual programming, while their momentary enjoyment was measured four times during the workshop through experience sampling. The course was structured to move from more guided tasks in the morning, including Morse code and debugging activities, to more open and creative tasks in the afternoon, such as designing smart textile applications. Structural equation modelling, including latent state-trait theory and latent growth curve models, was used to examine changes in enjoyment and self-efficacy over the day.

Results show that students’ enjoyment remained relatively stable across individual tasks and was largely shaped by their general enjoyment of programming rather than by specific task situations. However, students with lower initial enjoyment showed stronger increases during later, more creative tasks. Girls reported lower enjoyment than boys at the beginning of the workshop, but their enjoyment increased more strongly over time, narrowing the gender gap. Both girls and boys showed increased self-efficacy for visual programming by the end of the course. Although girls initially reported substantially lower self-efficacy than boys, the gender difference was no longer significant in the final model after the workshop.

Overall, the findings suggest that application-oriented and creative visual programming activities can foster students’ confidence in programming, especially among girls. The combination of smart textiles, visual coding, debugging practice, and open-ended design tasks appeared to create a motivating learning environment that supported positive emotions and self-efficacy development. The study highlights the importance of designing programming instruction around authentic, creative, and personally meaningful tasks, rather than treating programming as an abstract or purely technical activity.

Source (Open Access): Smit, R., Schmid, R., & Robin, N. (2025). Experiencing enjoyment in visual programming tasks promotes self‐efficacy and reduces the gender gap. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(3), 1231-1247.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13523… Read the rest

Categories
Kindergarten Social and Motivational Outcomes

An experimental study exploring human–AI complementarity in early social-emotional learning

A recent experimental study by Raave and colleagues employed a mixed factorial design to compare a pedagogical conversational agent (PCA) with human educators in facilitating early social-emotional learning (SEL). Eighteen international early childhood and primary teachers and an AI-driven PCA each conducted three standardized story-based SEL activities with a static AI child named “Ali,” designed to exhibit challenging characteristics including distractibility and limited empathy. This controlled comparison yielded 108 total observations across activities focusing on prosocial behavior, perspective-taking, and healthy guilt induction.

Expert raters, blind to facilitator type, coded interactions for three evidence-based pedagogical support techniques—cognitive-conceptual, procedural, and emotional support—using binary scales, and assessed broader teaching quality across six dimensions adapted from the Danielson Framework for Teaching on a 1-4 scale. The study maintained high inter-rater reliability across all measures (Cohen’s κ=.65−.80 for support techniques; quadratic weighted κ=.61−.76 for quality indicators).

Results revealed significant differences in facilitation approaches. Mixed ANOVA showed educators used more support techniques overall (M=7.57 vs. M=5.47) and substantially more cognitive-conceptual support than the PCA (M=15.28 vs. M=6.46, p<.001), while the PCA provided slightly more procedural support (p=.026). Quality ratings demonstrated complementary strengths: the PCA scored higher in relational domains such as respect and rapport (d=1.86) and flexibility (d=1.06), whereas educators excelled in intellectual engagement including questioning techniques (d=0.72) and engaging students in learning (d=0.96).

The findings reveal meaningful pedagogical asymmetry suggesting human-AI complementarity rather than competition. The PCA maintained consistent emotional validation and procedural structure but tended to be “caring but pedagogically shallow,” while educators provided deeper cognitive-conceptual scaffolding and moral reasoning guidance with greater affective variability. The authors propose a strategic division of labor where PCAs manage routine structuring and baseline emotional support, while human educators focus on complex social-emotional reasoning and ethical development. Future research should explore direct co-facilitation models in authentic classroom settings.

Source (Open Access): Raave, D. K., Colasante, T., Roa, E. R., Martinez, J. C. R., Li, H., Mukherjee, S., & Malti, T. (2026). An experimental study exploring human–AI complementarity in early social-emotional learning. Computers and Education Open, 100331.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2026.100331… Read the rest

Categories
Primary School Education Programme Evaluation

The effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: A cluster randomized controlled trial

Student leadership is widely recognized as an important life skill associated with academic, psychological, and social benefits. However, school-based leadership opportunities are often offered to students who already display leadership qualities, while those who may benefit most from such opportunities are less likely to participate. Existing leadership research has also focused mainly on adults, leaving limited evidence on how leadership skills can be developed among young students. To address this gap, this study evaluated Learning to Lead, a peer-led, school-based leadership and fundamental movement skills program grounded in transformational leadership theory.

The study used a two-arm cluster randomized controlled trial design involving 20 elementary schools in Australia. A total of 1,898 students participated, including 952 older students as Leaders and 946 younger students as Peers. Schools were randomized to either the intervention group or a wait-list control group after baseline assessment. The intervention consisted of teacher professional development, six leadership lessons delivered by trained teachers to student Leaders, and twelve peer-led fundamental movement skill sessions delivered by Leaders to younger Peers. Outcomes were assessed at baseline and immediately after the intervention. Leader outcomes included teacher-reported leadership effectiveness, self-reported leadership ability, leadership self-efficacy, wellbeing, and classroom time on-task. Peer outcomes included physical activity, perceived and actual motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscular fitness.

The results showed that the L2L program produced significant benefits for both Leaders and Peers. For Leaders, teacher-reported leadership effectiveness improved significantly in the intervention group compared with the control group, with an adjusted between-group difference of 0.56 units and an effect size of d = 0.39. The intervention also produced positive spillover effects: Leaders showed significantly greater wellbeing, with an adjusted difference of 0.77 units, and their classroom time on-task increased by approximately 7 percentage points. However, the program did not significantly improve Leaders’ self-reported leadership ability or leadership self-efficacy. For Peers, the intervention significantly improved perceived motor competence, with an adjusted difference of 1.12 units, increased daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity by 3.02 minutes per day, and improved cardiorespiratory fitness by 2.57 laps. Moderator analysis showed that the effect on perceived motor competence was significant for both boys and girls, but stronger among boys. However, the program did not significantly improve Peers’ actual motor competence or muscular fitness.

Taken together, the findings suggest that peer-led leadership programs can improve student leaders’ observable leadership effectiveness and generate broader benefits for their wellbeing and classroom engagement. The program also benefited younger peers by improving their perceived motor competence, physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness. These findings indicate that school-based peer-led interventions can meaningfully integrate leadership development with physical activity promotion. Nevertheless, the study has several limitations, including short-term outcome assessment, possible teacher expectancy effects in ratings of student leadership, possible awareness of group allocation among video coders, and the challenge of relying on student Leaders who were still developing their own leadership and movement skills. Future research should examine the long-term effects of such programs and consider providing stronger instructional support for student Leaders.

Source (Open Access): Wade, L., Beauchamp, M. R., Nathan, N., Smith, J. J., Leahy, A. A., Bao, R., Kennedy, S. G., Boyer, J., Diallo, T. M. O., Beacroft, S., & Lubans, D. R. (2026). Effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: The Learning to Lead cluster randomized controlled trial. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 102444.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2026.102444… Read the rest