Category: Language Development

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Language Development Primary School Education Secondary School Education

The Effects of Interventions for Students With Reading Difficulties in Grades 4–12

Killingly and colleagues conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of school-based interventions for students with reading difficulties in Grades 4–12 published between 2011 and 2023. The study examined the overall effectiveness of these interventions and further tested whether study characteristics, sample characteristics, and intervention characteristics moderated their effects. A total of 104 publications and 586 effect sizes were included, representing 97,114 participants. Methodologically, the authors used a Correlated and Hierarchical Effects model combined with robust variance estimation to address dependency among multiple outcomes and effect sizes within the same study, while also estimating effects across overall reading performance and specific reading domains.

The results showed that, overall, reading interventions had a small but significant positive effect for students with reading difficulties in Grades 4–12, with an overall effect size of g = 0.212 (95% CI [0.163, 0.261], p < .001). This suggests that although the gains were not large, these interventions did produce reliable improvements in students’ reading performance. Across specific reading domains, the strongest effects were found for vocabulary (g = 0.422), followed by decoding/word recognition (g = 0.199) and reading comprehension (g = 0.187). Fluency showed only a very small but significant effect (g = 0.080), spelling was not significant (g = 0.015), and phonological processing, although showing a larger effect size on the surface (g = 0.531), did not reach significance and was therefore considered unstable. Overall heterogeneity was very high (I² = 89.71%), indicating that differences in study design and sample characteristics had a substantial influence on intervention effectiveness. GRADE assessment further suggested that the overall quality of evidence ranged from moderate to high, with the strongest evidence for fluency, moderate evidence for vocabulary, and moderate-to-low evidence for phonological processing.

Moderator analyses showed that intervention effects varied according to both study and sample conditions. Overall, more recently published studies showed stronger effects (β = 0.015), and journal articles produced significantly larger effects (g = 0.268) than research reports (g = 0.062). In terms of sample characteristics, low socioeconomic status was not significantly related to overall effects, but a higher proportion of students with learning disabilities was associated with slightly stronger effects (β = 0.006). For students from a language background other than English, overall differences were not significant, but in the vocabulary domain, a greater proportion of such students was associated with stronger effects (β = 0.016), suggesting that vocabulary instruction may be particularly important for this group. Regarding intervention design, intervention focus, duration, and measurement type were all significant moderators. Comprehension-focused interventions showed relatively strong overall effects (g = 0.313), multicomponent interventions showed stable effects (g = 0.178), and word study interventions had smaller effects (g = 0.096), whereas vocabulary-focused interventions, though fewer in number, showed the largest effect (g = 0.716). Shorter interventions were actually associated with stronger effects, with effect sizes of g = 0.405 for 0–5 hours and g = 0.409 for 6–15 hours. In addition, researcher-developed measures yielded significantly larger effects (g = 0.542) than standardized measures (g = 0.127). Although there was no significant overall difference between interventions delivered by teachers and those delivered by researchers, in vocabulary interventions teacher-led delivery produced stronger effects (g = 0.733) than researcher-led delivery (g = 0.249), suggesting that classroom teachers may hold particular advantages in providing vocabulary support.

Overall, this study shows that reading interventions for older students with reading difficulties are indeed effective, although the magnitude of their effects depends on the reading domain being targeted and on the design of the intervention. Vocabulary and reading comprehension appear to be the most promising focuses, while multicomponent interventions also demonstrate stable benefits. By … Read the rest

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Language Development Primary School Education

Inference Training for Homonyms: Evidence from Two Randomized Controlled Trials in Primary Schools

A recent study by Booton and colleagues, investigated whether a brief lexical inference intervention could support children aged 7–8 years in learning the multiple meanings of homonyms, words that share the same spelling but carry distinct meanings (e.g., bat, bank, bark). Despite the prevalence of homonyms in everyday English and their well-documented challenge for young readers, no effective targeted intervention had previously been identified in the literature.

The researchers conducted two separate randomized controlled trials (RCTs) across English state primary schools. In Study 1, 180 children from six schools were randomly assigned to either an inference training condition (n = 60) or a spatial reasoning active control condition (n = 120). Participants attended four 30-minute intervention sessions delivered in small groups of four over a two-week period. In Study 2, 76 children, including 37 with English as an Additional Language (EAL) and 39 with English as a first language (EL1), were assigned through stratified randomisation to either the inference training (n = 40) or an implicit exposure control involving contextualised reading (n = 36). This second study also incorporated pre-registered methodology and measured metacognitive and inference skills alongside homonym knowledge.

The inference intervention, referred to as “Word Detectives,” trained children to use contextual clues within sentences to deduce the intended meaning of a homonym. Children were taught to notice, question, and infer meanings in a structured, experimenter-led format. The control groups received time-matched activities of a different nature—either spatial reasoning tasks (Study 1) or implicit reading exposure to the same target vocabulary without explicit inference instruction (Study 2). Receptive knowledge of both taught and untaught homonyms was assessed before and after the intervention using a researcher-developed homonym recognition task, while Study 2 additionally employed the York Assessment of Reading for Comprehension (YARC) to measure standardised reading comprehension.

Results from both RCTs consistently demonstrated that children in the inference training conditions made significantly greater gains in receptive homonym knowledge than their counterparts in the control groups. In Study 2, trained children also showed improved performance on the inference task itself. Importantly, while children with EAL displayed a specific baseline disadvantage in receptive homonym knowledge relative to their EL1 peers, the intervention proved equally effective for both language groups, suggesting its broad applicability across diverse classroom populations. Furthermore, receptive knowledge of homonyms and inference ability each predicted unique variance in reading comprehension scores beyond other vocabulary measures, highlighting the educational significance of homonym understanding for broader literacy outcomes.

The study did, however, identify notable limitations. Transfer of learning to untaught homonyms was limited, although error analysis suggested emergent generalisation of the inferencing strategy. The intervention window was brief (approximately two weeks), and follow-up data beyond the immediate post-test were not collected, leaving questions about the durability of gains unanswered. The researchers call for future studies with longer intervention periods, delayed follow-up assessments, and investigations into whether the intervention could be scaled for classroom delivery by teachers rather than trained researchers.

These findings carry meaningful implications for educational practice. Explicitly teaching lexical inference as a skill, rather than relying on incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading alone, may represent an efficient and equitable approach to bolstering both vocabulary and reading comprehension in the primary years, particularly in linguistically diverse classrooms where English language learners are present.

 

Source (Open Access): Booton, S. A., Birchenough, J. M., Gilligan‐Lee, K., Jelley, F., & Murphy, V. A. (2026). Lexical inference training for homonyms: Two randomized controlled trials for children with English as a first and an additional language. British Journal of Educational Psychology.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.70056… Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach Kindergarten Language Development

The Playful Pen: Strategies for embedding Writing Instruction into Daily Play

To explore how educators can integrate early writing instruction into kindergarten classrooms through guided play. Sanchez (2025) addresses the growing tension between play-based learning and the rigid, policy-driven academic curricula common in modern early childhood education. Because strict mandates often cause frustration for young learners during formal writing tasks, Sanchez (2025) proposes guided play—a blend of child-led exploration and intentional adult scaffolding—as a pedagogical solution to meet literacy goals while preserving autonomy.

The study was designed as a five-month participatory action research project conducted by Sanchez (2025) in a public kindergarten classroom of 25 students. Sanchez (2025) dedicated one hour daily to guided play, intentionally introducing targeted writing tools, books, and printables into popular areas like the playdough, block, dramatic play, and Lego centers. By carefully observing and interacting with the children, Sanchez (2025) seamlessly integrated early writing prompts into their natural play routines.

By thoughtfully curating materials and engaging in collaborative dialogue, Sanchez (2025) successfully motivated students to independently incorporate writing into their spontaneous play. Children naturally began authoring authentic texts, including “how-to” guides for playdough snowmen, labels for complex block mazes, dramatic play pie recipes, and step-by-step Lego instructions. This playful approach transformed writing from a stressful, mandated chore into a joyful, self-directed activity that empowered even the most reluctant students.

Sanchez (2025) concludes that guided play effectively dismantles the false dichotomy between structured academic learning and early childhood play. The research highlights that successful implementation requires dedicating adequate classroom time, encouraging storytelling with an audience, and fostering a supportive community among educators. Ultimately, intentional scaffolding allows writing to evolve from an isolated academic skill into an authentic, meaningful communication tool that honors young children’s agency.

 

Source (Open Access): Sanchez, A. (2025). Guided play in the kindergarten classroom: One teacher’s inquiry into scaffolding play-based writing instruction. Early Childhood Education Journal, 53(6), 2089-2098.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-025-01931-w… Read the rest

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Higher Education Language Development

Comparing the effects of ChatGPT and automated writing evaluation on students’ writing and ideal L2 writing self

Using a randomized controlled experimental design, Shi et al. (2025) compared the effects of ChatGPT-based feedback and traditional automated writing evaluation (AWE) systems on English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) students’ writing performance and their ideal L2 writing self. One hundred and fifty second-year university students from three writing classes in a Chinese public university were recruited and randomly divided into a ChatGPT group, an AWE group, and a control group.

After an eleven-week intervention, results showed that ChatGPT helped students perform better in their writing compared to the control group and the AWE group, but compared to the AWE group, ChatGPT significantly lowered students’ ideal L2 writing self. Qualitative results shed light on possible causes: while participants were fully aware of the affordances of ChatGPT feedback, they were also concerned with their (over) reliance on the tool and the accompanying loss of creativity and agency and expressed their reserved attitude toward future intention to use ChatGPT.

Educators should refine learning objectives based on students’ ZPD and design prompts accordingly, so that ChatGPT supports learning rather than completing tasks, while also teaching prompt-engineering skills. For lower-intermediate to intermediate learners, AWE’s systematic and rule-based feedback can provide stronger scaffolding and better preserve authorship. However, ChatGPT’s richer affordances may lead to over-reliance, weakening learner agency and diminishing the ideal L2 writing self. Therefore, language-education goals should be redefined to incorporate AI literacy and critical thinking, safeguarding teacher and learner agency and promoting responsible use.

 

Source (Open Access): Shi, H., Chai, C. S., Zhou, S., & Aubrey, S. (2025). Comparing the effects of ChatGPT and automated writing evaluation on students’ writing and ideal L2 writing self. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-28.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2025.2454541… Read the rest

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Language Development Maths and Science Learning Primary School Education

A systematic review and meta-analysis of ECEC process and structural quality and early primary academic competences

A protocol-guided systematic review and meta-analysis examined how components of early childhood education and care (ECEC) quality relate to children’s language and mathematics competences in the first two grades of primary school. 17 peer-reviewed studies met inclusion criteria, and 11 provided effect sizes for quantitative synthesis. The review addressed two questions: (1) To what extent do process and structural quality show direct associations with academic competences in grades 1 and 2, and do component-specific differences emerge across teacher–child relationships, interaction quality, classroom organization, instructional support, and pre-academic activities. (2) Do these associations vary across sample type, continent, or study quality when individual study characteristics are considered.

A meta-analytic approach was used to estimate pooled correlations. ECEC quality was operationalized as process quality and structural quality. Process quality included student–teacher relationships rated with the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale and observed interaction quality with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System, as well as classroom organization, instructional support, and targeted pre-academic activities in language and mathematics. Structural quality included class size, child–teacher ratio, teacher qualification, and global environment ratings. Academic competences were assessed with standardized tests or teacher reports in language and mathematics during grades 1 and 2.

Findings showed a small positive pooled association between student–teacher relationships and interaction quality and later academic competences (k = 8, N = 9,896, Δ = .11, p < .001, 95% CI [.05, .18]). Heterogeneity was high (Q = 40.91, p < .001; I² = 77.70%). Subgroup contrasts by continent, sample type, and study quality were not statistically significant. Pre-academic activities and supports also showed a small positive pooled association (k = 4, N = 1,856, Δ = .07, p < .001, 95% CI [.02, .11]) with negligible heterogeneity (Q = 1.07, p > .05; I² = .01%). Structural quality showed a pooled association that was not statistically significant and was highly heterogeneous (k = 3, N = 17,804, Q = 44.96, p < .001; I² = 93.94%). Publication bias tests suggested no small-study effects for the process and pre-academic models, while funnel asymmetry and a significant Egger test indicated bias for the structural model. At the study level, results were mixed. Some analyses linked closeness in kindergarten to later reading and linked teacher certification specific to early childhood to higher grade-1 reading and mathematics, while many associations for class size and child–teacher ratio were null.

This evidence base offers practical guidance for improving early learning trajectories. It underscores the importance of strengthening teacher–child relationships, enriching interaction quality, and implementing purposeful pre-academic activities that support early literacy and foundational mathematics. Structural inputs remain important as enabling conditions, yet clearer and more consistent measurement is needed to establish their longer-term academic links. The findings support professional development that targets relational competencies, classroom organization, and instructional support, together with careful design and implementation of pre-academic practices to promote equitable and effective learning outcomes.

 

Source (Open Access): Rademacher, A., Bäker, N., von Düring, U., Hiltunen, V., & Goagoses, N. (2025). The effects of early childhood education and care quality on academic competences in early primary school: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 40(4), 1-31.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-025-01005-w… Read the rest

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Language Development Primary School Education

The efficacy of AI chatbots for English as a foreign language learning in primary education

Artificial intelligence (AI) has been recognized as a potentially game-changing technology, and it is already penetrating a variety of fields in education, including EFL instruction. Prior studies suggest that AI language education has received considerable critical attention, most studies in the field of AI chatbot-enhanced language education have only focused on higher education, and the impact of a chatbot on children receiving primary language education who are in the critical period of language learning should also be addressed.

To address this, Yuan (2024) examines the efficacy of AI chatbots in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in primary education, focusing on oral English proficiency and willingness to communicate (WTC). Conducted in a Chinese elementary school, the research compares traditional teaching methods with AI chatbot-assisted learning. The study involved 74 fifth-grade students from a primary school in China, split into two groups: an experimental group using the Mondly chatbot and a control group following traditional methods. Over three months, the experimental group practiced conversational English with the chatbot for 15 minutes, three times a week, in addition to regular classes.

The results revealed students in the chatbot-assisted group significantly outperformed the control group in oral English proficiency and WTC. Chatbots helped reduce language anxiety, improve fluency and pronunciation, and enrich vocabulary. Teachers observed improved classroom dynamics, with more active participation and confidence among students. Students appreciated the chatbot’s interactive and supportive environment, which encouraged them to apply learned vocabulary in real-life contexts, demonstrating practical utility beyond academic improvement.

The author suggested that improving AI chatbots by incorporating adaptive learning systems, personalized error correction, and engaging features like celebrity voices or topic-specific knowledge to maintain interest. Teachers should receive training to integrate chatbots effectively into classrooms. However, long-term effects, larger sample sizes, and parental perspectives should be explored to enhance the applicability of findings.

Source: Yuan, Y. (2024). An empirical study of the efficacy of AI chatbots for English as a foreign language learning in primary education. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(10), 6774-6789.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2282112… Read the rest