Category: Primary School Education

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Primary School Education Programme Evaluation

The effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: A cluster randomized controlled trial

Student leadership is widely recognized as an important life skill associated with academic, psychological, and social benefits. However, school-based leadership opportunities are often offered to students who already display leadership qualities, while those who may benefit most from such opportunities are less likely to participate. Existing leadership research has also focused mainly on adults, leaving limited evidence on how leadership skills can be developed among young students. To address this gap, this study evaluated Learning to Lead, a peer-led, school-based leadership and fundamental movement skills program grounded in transformational leadership theory.

The study used a two-arm cluster randomized controlled trial design involving 20 elementary schools in Australia. A total of 1,898 students participated, including 952 older students as Leaders and 946 younger students as Peers. Schools were randomized to either the intervention group or a wait-list control group after baseline assessment. The intervention consisted of teacher professional development, six leadership lessons delivered by trained teachers to student Leaders, and twelve peer-led fundamental movement skill sessions delivered by Leaders to younger Peers. Outcomes were assessed at baseline and immediately after the intervention. Leader outcomes included teacher-reported leadership effectiveness, self-reported leadership ability, leadership self-efficacy, wellbeing, and classroom time on-task. Peer outcomes included physical activity, perceived and actual motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscular fitness.

The results showed that the L2L program produced significant benefits for both Leaders and Peers. For Leaders, teacher-reported leadership effectiveness improved significantly in the intervention group compared with the control group, with an adjusted between-group difference of 0.56 units and an effect size of d = 0.39. The intervention also produced positive spillover effects: Leaders showed significantly greater wellbeing, with an adjusted difference of 0.77 units, and their classroom time on-task increased by approximately 7 percentage points. However, the program did not significantly improve Leaders’ self-reported leadership ability or leadership self-efficacy. For Peers, the intervention significantly improved perceived motor competence, with an adjusted difference of 1.12 units, increased daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity by 3.02 minutes per day, and improved cardiorespiratory fitness by 2.57 laps. Moderator analysis showed that the effect on perceived motor competence was significant for both boys and girls, but stronger among boys. However, the program did not significantly improve Peers’ actual motor competence or muscular fitness.

Taken together, the findings suggest that peer-led leadership programs can improve student leaders’ observable leadership effectiveness and generate broader benefits for their wellbeing and classroom engagement. The program also benefited younger peers by improving their perceived motor competence, physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness. These findings indicate that school-based peer-led interventions can meaningfully integrate leadership development with physical activity promotion. Nevertheless, the study has several limitations, including short-term outcome assessment, possible teacher expectancy effects in ratings of student leadership, possible awareness of group allocation among video coders, and the challenge of relying on student Leaders who were still developing their own leadership and movement skills. Future research should examine the long-term effects of such programs and consider providing stronger instructional support for student Leaders.

Source (Open Access): Wade, L., Beauchamp, M. R., Nathan, N., Smith, J. J., Leahy, A. A., Bao, R., Kennedy, S. G., Boyer, J., Diallo, T. M. O., Beacroft, S., & Lubans, D. R. (2026). Effects of a school-based leadership program on student leaders and their peers: The Learning to Lead cluster randomized controlled trial. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 102444.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2026.102444… Read the rest

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Maths and Science Learning Primary School Education

Generative AI and Multimodal Data for Educational Feedback: Insights from Embodied Math Learning

Cosentino et al. (2025) explore the role of generative AI (GenAI) in providing formative feedback within embodied mathematics learning environments. Building on embodied cognition theory and advances in multimodal learning technologies, the study examines whether AI-generated feedback can effectively support students’ learning processes compared to traditional teacher feedback. The research focuses on children learning integer operations through a body-scale digital number line, where physical movement is integrated into mathematical reasoning.

Using a between-group experimental design, 34 students aged 11-13 were assigned to either a GenAI feedback condition or a human teacher feedback condition. Students interacted with a multisensory learning environment (MOVES), where their movements were tracked and used to generate real-time, adaptive feedback through a GPT-4–based system. Multimodal data, including eye-tracking, system logs, and behavioral measures, were collected to assess task performance, cognitive load, and information processing patterns.

Results show no significant differences in task-based learning performance between the GenAI and teacher feedback conditions. However, students receiving GenAI feedback demonstrated significantly lower cognitive load and more balanced information processing strategies, as indicated by eye-tracking metrics such as pupil dilation and the Information Processing Index (IPI). In contrast, students in the teacher feedback condition exhibited higher cognitive load and more frequent attention shifts toward irrelevant or incorrect options, suggesting less efficient processing.

Overall, the findings highlight the potential of GenAI as an effective tool for delivering structured, adaptive feedback that enhances learning efficiency without compromising learning outcomes. Rather than replacing teachers, the study emphasizes the value of hybrid intelligence approaches that integrate AI and human feedback to optimize learning experiences. The results provide important implications for designing AI-enhanced, multimodal learning environments that support cognitive engagement and personalized learning in mathematics education.

Source (Open Access): Cosentino, G., Anton, J., Sharma, K., Gelsomini, M., Giannakos, M., & Abrahamson, D. (2025). Generative AI and multimodal data for educational feedback: Insights from embodied math learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(5), 1686-1709.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13587… Read the rest

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Language Development Primary School Education

Inference Training for Homonyms: Evidence from Two Randomized Controlled Trials in Primary Schools

A recent study by Booton and colleagues, investigated whether a brief lexical inference intervention could support children aged 7–8 years in learning the multiple meanings of homonyms, words that share the same spelling but carry distinct meanings (e.g., bat, bank, bark). Despite the prevalence of homonyms in everyday English and their well-documented challenge for young readers, no effective targeted intervention had previously been identified in the literature.

The researchers conducted two separate randomized controlled trials (RCTs) across English state primary schools. In Study 1, 180 children from six schools were randomly assigned to either an inference training condition (n = 60) or a spatial reasoning active control condition (n = 120). Participants attended four 30-minute intervention sessions delivered in small groups of four over a two-week period. In Study 2, 76 children, including 37 with English as an Additional Language (EAL) and 39 with English as a first language (EL1), were assigned through stratified randomisation to either the inference training (n = 40) or an implicit exposure control involving contextualised reading (n = 36). This second study also incorporated pre-registered methodology and measured metacognitive and inference skills alongside homonym knowledge.

The inference intervention, referred to as “Word Detectives,” trained children to use contextual clues within sentences to deduce the intended meaning of a homonym. Children were taught to notice, question, and infer meanings in a structured, experimenter-led format. The control groups received time-matched activities of a different nature—either spatial reasoning tasks (Study 1) or implicit reading exposure to the same target vocabulary without explicit inference instruction (Study 2). Receptive knowledge of both taught and untaught homonyms was assessed before and after the intervention using a researcher-developed homonym recognition task, while Study 2 additionally employed the York Assessment of Reading for Comprehension (YARC) to measure standardised reading comprehension.

Results from both RCTs consistently demonstrated that children in the inference training conditions made significantly greater gains in receptive homonym knowledge than their counterparts in the control groups. In Study 2, trained children also showed improved performance on the inference task itself. Importantly, while children with EAL displayed a specific baseline disadvantage in receptive homonym knowledge relative to their EL1 peers, the intervention proved equally effective for both language groups, suggesting its broad applicability across diverse classroom populations. Furthermore, receptive knowledge of homonyms and inference ability each predicted unique variance in reading comprehension scores beyond other vocabulary measures, highlighting the educational significance of homonym understanding for broader literacy outcomes.

The study did, however, identify notable limitations. Transfer of learning to untaught homonyms was limited, although error analysis suggested emergent generalisation of the inferencing strategy. The intervention window was brief (approximately two weeks), and follow-up data beyond the immediate post-test were not collected, leaving questions about the durability of gains unanswered. The researchers call for future studies with longer intervention periods, delayed follow-up assessments, and investigations into whether the intervention could be scaled for classroom delivery by teachers rather than trained researchers.

These findings carry meaningful implications for educational practice. Explicitly teaching lexical inference as a skill, rather than relying on incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading alone, may represent an efficient and equitable approach to bolstering both vocabulary and reading comprehension in the primary years, particularly in linguistically diverse classrooms where English language learners are present.

 

Source (Open Access): Booton, S. A., Birchenough, J. M., Gilligan‐Lee, K., Jelley, F., & Murphy, V. A. (2026). Lexical inference training for homonyms: Two randomized controlled trials for children with English as a first and an additional language. British Journal of Educational Psychology.

https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.70056… Read the rest

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Primary School Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

Effects of virtual reality exercise on social skills and emotional recognition among children with autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

A meta-analysis by Cui and colleagues assessed the effects of virtual reality (VR) exercise on social skills (SS) and emotional recognition (ER) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Analysing data from randomized controlled trials published between January 2005 and October 2025 across PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and EBSCO databases, the authors investigated the relationship between VR exercise interventions and children’s social-emotional development outcomes.

The authors employed standardized mean difference (SMD) as the effect size, utilizing random-effects models to synthesize results across studies. VR exercise interventions were compared with standard treatment approaches. The methodology included comprehensive database searches using keywords: virtual reality, autism spectrum disorder, and children. Quality assessment followed Cochrane Handbook guidelines, with heterogeneity evaluated through I² statistics. Subgroup analyses examined intervention duration effects (< 14 weeks versus ≥ 14 weeks), and secondary outcomes included cognitive function, anxiety, language function, and depression.

The results revealed significant positive effects of VR exercise on SS (SMD = 0.94 [0.71, 1.17], p < 0.05, I² = 74%) and ER (SMD = 0.42 [0.18, 0.65], p < 0.05, I² = 0%). Furthermore, subgroup analysis demonstrated that interventions lasting less than 14 weeks (SMD = 0.63 [0.36, 0.91], p < 0.05, I² = 0%) and those exceeding 14 weeks (SMD = 1.70 [1.27, 2.13], p < 0.05, I² = 44%) both substantially improved SS, with longer interventions showing greater effect sizes. Additionally, VR exercise improved cognitive function (SMD = 0.49 [0.06, 0.93], p < 0.05, I² = 0%) and reduced anxiety (SMD = 0.56 [1.10, 0.02], p < 0.05, I² = 0%). Notably, effects on language function and depression remained unclear due to insufficient evidence.

The findings underscore the effectiveness of VR exercise as a technological intervention modality superior to standard treatment approaches in enhancing social-emotional competencies among children with ASD. Therefore, future clinical practice should consider integrating VR exercise interventions into rehabilitation programs for children with ASD, particularly emphasizing intervention duration optimization to maximize therapeutic benefits. The moderate effect sizes and cautious interpretation regarding cognitive and anxiety outcomes require validation through larger-scale longitudinal studies with standardized outcome measures.

Source (Open Access): Cui, T., Ariffin, R. B., Wang, X., & Wang, X. (2026). Effects of virtual reality exercise on social skills and emotional recognition among children with autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC psychology.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04160-x… Read the rest

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Primary School Education Secondary School Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

Teachers’ Teaching Emotions, Teaching Mindset, and AI Readiness

Ti and colleagues employed a cross-sectional survey design with hierarchical regression and moderation analyses to examine how in-service teachers’ teaching emotions and teaching ability mindset predict their AI readiness, and whether mindset moderates the relationship between emotions and AI readiness. The study included 424 in-service teachers in China (mean age = 38.76 years) from both primary and secondary schools. AI readiness was measured using Wang et al.’s (2023) four-dimensional framework, including cognition, ability, vision, and ethics. Teaching emotions were categorized into positive and negative emotions, and teaching mindset was classified as growth or fixed. Gender and social desirability bias were controlled in the analyses, and interaction effects were tested using the PROCESS macro.

The results showed that positive teaching emotions significantly and positively predicted all four dimensions of AI readiness (B ≥ .48, p < .001), whereas negative emotions did not significantly predict any dimension (|B| ≤ .06, p ≥ .309). Regarding mindset, a growth teaching mindset had significant positive effects on cognition, ability, vision, and ethics (B ≥ .18, p < .01), indicating that teachers who view teaching ability as developable are better prepared to respond to AI-related educational change. Interestingly, a fixed teaching mindset did not uniformly produce negative effects; instead, it positively predicted the cognition and ability dimensions (B ≥ .17, p < .01), although it was not significant for vision and ethics. Overall, the inclusion of emotions and mindset in the models yielded medium to large effect sizes (.28 ≤ f² ≤ .36), suggesting substantial explanatory power.

Moderation analyses further revealed that a growth teaching mindset strengthened the positive relationship between positive emotions and AI cognitive readiness (B = .11, p < .05). In other words, teachers with both high positive emotions and a strong growth mindset demonstrated higher levels of understanding regarding AI roles and functions. In contrast, a fixed teaching mindset moderated the relationship between negative emotions and the cognitive dimension (B = .10, p < .05). When fixed mindset was low, negative emotions significantly reduced cognitive readiness (B = –.18, p < .05), whereas this effect was not significant when fixed mindset was high. Notably, moderation effects were observed only for the cognition dimension, suggesting that the cognitive aspect of AI readiness is particularly sensitive to the interaction between emotional and mindset resources.

Overall, this study indicates that teachers’ readiness for AI integration in education is influenced not only by technical training or institutional support but also by their emotional experiences and beliefs about the malleability of teaching ability. Positive emotions and a growth teaching mindset serve as important psychological resources that enhance AI readiness, especially in shaping teachers’ cognitive understanding of AI. The authors recommend that AI-related professional development initiatives incorporate emotional regulation support and mindset cultivation to foster more comprehensive and sustainable AI readiness among teachers.

Source (Open Access): Ti, Y., Sun, Y., & Li, X. (2026). Predicting in-service teachers’ AI readiness from emotions in teaching and mindsets about teaching ability: Testing the direct and moderating effects. Teaching and Teacher Education, 175, 105433.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2026.105433… Read the rest

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Primary School Education Secondary School Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

The Relationship Between Teachers’ Character Virtues, Engagement, and Well-Being

Angelini and colleagues employed a cross-sectional survey design combined with path analysis to examine how three teacher character virtues—caring, inquisitiveness, and self-control—influence teachers’ work engagement and overall well-being, and to further test the mediating roles of burnout and teacher self-efficacy. The study involved 339 in-service teachers in Italy from both primary and secondary education, and collected data on character virtues, burnout, self-efficacy, work engagement, and psychological well-being to examine both direct and indirect relationships among these variables.

The results showed that the three character virtues exerted significant overall positive effects on teachers’ engagement and well-being. Correlational analyses indicated that inquisitiveness, caring, and self-control were all positively associated with self-efficacy, work engagement, and well-being, and negatively associated with burnout. Path analysis further revealed that inquisitiveness and self-control significantly reduced burnout (β = –.142, p < .05; β = –.235, p < .001, respectively) and enhanced teacher self-efficacy (β = .206, p < .01; β = .191, p < .01). Caring, by contrast, mainly influenced outcomes through increasing self-efficacy (β = .171, p < .01) and did not directly reduce burnout. Burnout had strong negative effects on work engagement (β = –.528, p < .001) and well-being (β = –.324, p < .001), whereas self-efficacy significantly increased engagement (β = .212, p < .001) and well-being (β = .219, p < .001), highlighting their central mediating roles in the model. Overall, the model explained 35.6% of the variance in work engagement and 45.7% of the variance in well-being.

Notably, the mechanisms through which different character virtues operated were not identical. Inquisitiveness had direct effects on both work engagement (β = .095, p < .05) and well-being (β = .122, p < .05), as well as significant indirect effects through burnout and self-efficacy. Caring primarily affected well-being (β = .184, p < .001), with its influence on work engagement largely mediated by self-efficacy. Self-control did not directly predict engagement or well-being, but indirectly promoted both outcomes by reducing burnout and enhancing self-efficacy. These findings suggest that teacher character virtues influence professional functioning through multiple psychological and occupational pathways rather than a single uniform mechanism.

Overall, this study demonstrates that teachers’ character virtues constitute important personal resources for fostering professional engagement and psychological well-being, with burnout and self-efficacy serving as key mechanisms linking character to well-being. The authors emphasize that teacher well-being and burnout should be viewed as two ends of the same continuum, and recommend that future teacher support and professional development programs incorporate character-based interventions to simultaneously reduce burnout risk and enhance teachers’ professional vitality and overall well-being.

Source (Open Access): Angelini, G., Mamprin, C., Buonomo, I., Benevene, P., & Fiorilli, C. (2026). Virtues, engagement, and well-being in teachers: Associations with burnout and self-efficacy in a path analysis model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 169, 105284.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2025.105284… Read the rest