Category: Effective Teaching Approach

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Effective Teaching Approach K-12 Education

The effect of AI-driven intelligent tutoring systems on K-12 students’ learning and performance: A systematic review

A recent systematic review published in npj Science of Learning examines the effects of intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) on students’ learning and performance in K-12 education. As artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) has expanded rapidly, ITSs have emerged as a key application with the potential to personalize learning and improve educational outcomes. However, despite their growing adoption, their actual educational value remains uncertain. While some studies suggest that ITSs can enhance learning outcomes and even outperform traditional instruction, others report limited or inconsistent effects. In addition, existing research often conflates different educational contexts or focuses on broader AI applications, leaving a lack of systematic understanding of ITS effectiveness specifically in K-12 settings. This study therefore aims to assess the effects of ITSs on K-12 students’ learning and performance and to examine the experimental designs used to evaluate these systems.

The authors conducted a systematic review of 28 empirical studies involving a total of 4,597 students. Most studies adopted quasi-experimental designs, typically comparing an ITS-based intervention group with control conditions such as traditional teacher-led instruction, non-intelligent tutoring systems, modified ITSs, or no control group. The studies covered a range of countries, subjects, and school levels, with a strong concentration in middle and high school STEM education. Intervention durations varied considerably, from a single class session to several weeks or months. The review categorized studies based on educational context, experimental design, and intervention characteristics to enable a structured comparison of findings.

The review finds that ITSs generally have a positive effect on students’ learning and performance in K-12 education, particularly when compared to traditional teacher-led instruction, where most studies report medium to large effects. However, when compared with non-intelligent tutoring systems, the results are more mixed, with several studies finding no significant differences. Substantial heterogeneity is observed across studies due to differences in design, duration, and context. Importantly, the effectiveness of ITSs depends on key features such as personalization, adaptivity, and real-time feedback, as well as on implementation conditions. ITSs that are integrated with teacher support, encourage self-regulated learning, and are used over longer periods tend to produce better outcomes. In contrast, short interventions may be influenced by novelty effects, and learner characteristics such as prior knowledge and educational level also shape outcomes.

Taken together, the findings suggest that ITSs can enhance learning and performance in K-12 education, but their effectiveness is contingent upon pedagogical design and implementation conditions rather than technology alone. ITSs are most effective when aligned with sound instructional principles and used in combination with teacher guidance. The study also highlights limitations in the existing literature, including short intervention durations, limited sample diversity, and a lack of attention to ethical considerations. It calls for future research with more robust experimental designs, longer interventions, and greater attention to ethical issues, particularly as AI technologies continue to evolve and play an increasing role in education.

Source (Open Access): Létourneau, A., Deslandes Martineau, M., Charland, P., Karran, J. A., Boasen, J., & Léger, P. M. (2025). A systematic review of AI-driven intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) in K-12 education. npj Science of Learning, 10(1), 29.

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-025-00320-7… Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach Secondary School Education

LLM-Based Collaborative Programming: Effects on Computational Thinking and Self-Efficacy

Yan et al. (2025) examine whether integrating large language models (LLMs) into collaborative programming can enhance students’ computational thinking, self-efficacy, and learning processes. Recognizing that traditional collaborative programming is often constrained by uneven skill levels among students, the study proposes an LLM-supported collaborative framework in which AI acts as a learning partner, transforming the conventional human–human interaction into a human–human–AI collaboration model. A quasi-experimental design was conducted with 82 sixth- and seventh-grade students in China, who were randomly assigned to either an LLM-supported collaborative programming group (experiment group) or a traditional collaborative programming group (control group).

The intervention lasted five weeks and included 12 programming sessions (90 min each) using C++ as the instructional language. Students in both groups worked in teams, but the experimental group used an LLM-based platform that provided structured, problem-based, and knowledge-based scaffolding throughout the programming process, including problem analysis, coding, debugging, and evaluation. Pre- and post-tests measured students’ computational thinking and self-efficacy, while cognitive load was assessed through questionnaires, complemented by semi-structured interviews.

Results indicate that students in the LLM-supported collaborative programming group achieved significantly higher gains in computational thinking compared to those in the traditional group, though the effect size was relatively small. In addition, students in the experimental group reported significantly lower cognitive load, particularly in mental load, suggesting that LLMs can reduce the cognitive burden associated with complex programming tasks. However, no statistically significant differences were found in self-efficacy between the two groups. Both groups showed a decline in self-efficacy over time, likely due to the transition from graphical programming to more abstract text-based coding, though the decline was less pronounced in the LLM-supported group.

Qualitative findings further reveal that LLM integration enhanced students’ learning experiences by increasing interest, improving problem-solving efficiency, and supporting collaboration. Students reported that LLMs provided immediate feedback, multiple solution strategies, and personalized guidance, enabling more effective engagement in programming tasks. Overall, the study demonstrates that LLMs can function as effective scaffolding tools in collaborative learning, reducing cognitive load and enhancing higher-order thinking. While their impact on self-efficacy remains inconclusive, the findings highlight the potential of AI-supported collaborative learning environments as a promising approach for programming education in K–12 contexts.

Source (Open Access): Yan, Y. M., Chen, C. Q., Hu, Y. B., & Ye, X. D. (2025). LLM-based collaborative programming: Impact on students’ computational thinking and self-efficacy. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 12(1), 149.https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-04471-1… Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach Kindergarten Language Development

The Playful Pen: Strategies for embedding Writing Instruction into Daily Play

To explore how educators can integrate early writing instruction into kindergarten classrooms through guided play. Sanchez (2025) addresses the growing tension between play-based learning and the rigid, policy-driven academic curricula common in modern early childhood education. Because strict mandates often cause frustration for young learners during formal writing tasks, Sanchez (2025) proposes guided play—a blend of child-led exploration and intentional adult scaffolding—as a pedagogical solution to meet literacy goals while preserving autonomy.

The study was designed as a five-month participatory action research project conducted by Sanchez (2025) in a public kindergarten classroom of 25 students. Sanchez (2025) dedicated one hour daily to guided play, intentionally introducing targeted writing tools, books, and printables into popular areas like the playdough, block, dramatic play, and Lego centers. By carefully observing and interacting with the children, Sanchez (2025) seamlessly integrated early writing prompts into their natural play routines.

By thoughtfully curating materials and engaging in collaborative dialogue, Sanchez (2025) successfully motivated students to independently incorporate writing into their spontaneous play. Children naturally began authoring authentic texts, including “how-to” guides for playdough snowmen, labels for complex block mazes, dramatic play pie recipes, and step-by-step Lego instructions. This playful approach transformed writing from a stressful, mandated chore into a joyful, self-directed activity that empowered even the most reluctant students.

Sanchez (2025) concludes that guided play effectively dismantles the false dichotomy between structured academic learning and early childhood play. The research highlights that successful implementation requires dedicating adequate classroom time, encouraging storytelling with an audience, and fostering a supportive community among educators. Ultimately, intentional scaffolding allows writing to evolve from an isolated academic skill into an authentic, meaningful communication tool that honors young children’s agency.

 

Source (Open Access): Sanchez, A. (2025). Guided play in the kindergarten classroom: One teacher’s inquiry into scaffolding play-based writing instruction. Early Childhood Education Journal, 53(6), 2089-2098.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-025-01931-w… Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach Kindergarten

The Mediating Role of Playfulness: Linking Parental Play Support to Creative Thinking in Hong Kong Kindergartens

Play is theorized as a crucial way children express and develop their creativity. Grounded in the bioecological model of human development and Vygotsky’s theories on play and creativity, Fung and Chung (2025) aim to address a gap in research by examining how family factors within a child’s microsystem influence creative potential. While previous research often defined creative potential solely as personality traits, Fung and Chung (2025) operationalize it through cognitive processes: divergent thinking (generating multiple solutions) and convergent thinking (deducing the single best solution). They hypothesized that parental beliefs about play would indirectly foster these creative thinking skills by nurturing children’s playfulness.

The participants were 181 children (aged 4 to 5 years; 54.1% girls) recruited from nine kindergartens in Hong Kong, along with their parents. Data collection involved both parent-reported questionnaires and direct behavioral assessments of the children. Parents completed the Parent Play Beliefs Scale (PPBS) to measure their support for play and the Children’s Playfulness Scale (CPS) to assess their child’s playfulness across five dimensions: physical, social, and cognitive spontaneity, manifest joy, and sense of humor. Children’s creative thinking was assessed directly: convergent thinking was measured using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R), while divergent thinking was evaluated using the figural circle task from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), where children drew pictures based on circles.

Preliminary analyses showed that all five aspects of playfulness were positively correlated with parental play support, but only social spontaneity and cognitive spontaneity significantly correlated with the children’s creative thinking processes. A path analytic model was used to test the relationships, revealing that the direct link between parental play support and children’s creative thinking was non-significant. Instead, the relationship was fully mediated: parental play support positively predicted social spontaneity, which in turn predicted convergent thinking, and it positively predicted cognitive spontaneity, which predicted divergent thinking. The model demonstrated adequate fit, confirming that the influence of parental support on creativity operates through specific aspects of the child’s playful behavior.

Fung and Chung (2025) conclude that parental play support is a crucial environmental factor that fosters creative potential, but it does so indirectly by nurturing a child’s playfulness rather than directly teaching creative skills. Specifically, parents who value play create an environment that encourages social and cognitive spontaneity, which are the specific drivers of convergent and divergent thinking respectively. This finding supports the bioecological model, highlighting how the home microsystem shapes child development. Practically, Fung and Chung (2025) suggest that to enhance creativity in early childhood—a critical period for development—educators and policymakers should focus on interventions that help parents understand the value of play and promote playful behaviors in the household.

 

Source (Open Access): Fung, W. K., & Chung, K. K. H. (2025). Interrelationships Among Parental Play Support and Kindergarten Children’s Playfulness and Creative Thinking Processes. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 101907.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101907

 … Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach Maths and Science Learning Primary School Education

Spatially-Enhanced Science Instruction in Elementary Schools: Evidence from a Randomized Study

Gagnier et al. (2026) examine whether embedding spatial thinking practices into elementary science instruction can enhance teachers’ and students’ spatial skills. Rather than relying on stand-alone spatial training, the study evaluates a spatially-enhanced (SE) science curriculum that integrates five spatial strategies—gesture, spatial comparison, spatial language, sketching, and explicit visualization instruction—into daily classroom teaching. The intervention was implemented across an academic year with 35 third-grade teachers and 572 students from a large urban U.S. school district serving predominantly historically underrepresented populations.

Using a randomized design, teachers and students were assigned to one of three conditions: business-as-usual instruction, an NGSS-aligned curriculum (NGSS: Next Generation Science Standards), or an NGSS-aligned curriculum with embedded spatial enhancements. The NGSS-aligned curriculum emphasized core disciplinary ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts specified in NGSS, but did not include explicit instruction targeting spatial thinking. By contrast, the spatially-enhanced condition incorporated the same NGSS-aligned content while systematically embedding the five spatial strategies into instructional activities.

Pre- and post-assessments of spatial skills were administered to both teachers and students. Hierarchical linear regression results indicate that teachers exposed to the spatially-enhanced curriculum demonstrated significantly stronger gains in overall spatial reasoning, particularly in spatial visualization, compared with their counterparts in the other conditions. In contrast, student gains in spatial skills were more modest and did not consistently reach statistical significance.

The findings highlight teachers as a critical leverage point for spatially-enhanced instruction. By integrating spatial thinking into everyday science teaching and professional learning, the study demonstrates a feasible, curriculum-embedded approach to strengthening teachers’ spatial competencies. While student outcomes appear more sensitive to implementation and contextual factors, the research underscores the promise of spatially-enhanced curricula as a scalable pathway for enriching STEM instruction in elementary education.

Source (Open Access): Gagnier, K. M., Holochwost, S. J., Tomazin, L., Alsayegh, S., Fatahi, N., Gold, B., & Fisher, K. R. (2025). Spatially-enhanced science instruction in elementary school: Impacts on teachers’ and students’ spatial skills. Learning and Instruction, 102248.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102248… Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach K-12 Education Programme Evaluation

Equity in Teacher Education Programs: Conceptions and Program-Level Efforts

Ko-Wong (2025) conducts a systematic review to examine how teacher education programs (TEPs) in the United States conceptualize, implement, and prioritize equity. Drawing on 58 empirical studies that met rigorous inclusion criteria, the review synthesizes program-level equity efforts across coursework, field placements, recruitment strategies, faculty development, and structural reforms. The analysis highlights substantial conceptual ambiguity: many programs invoke equity rhetorically while relying on race-evasive framings, thin interpretations of fairness, or narrow emphases on access and achievement. Few studies explicitly address Whiteness, racism, power, or meritocracy—core constructs in critical equity frameworks.

Using an adapted strong-equity lens, the review finds that most TEPs focus on surface-level or fragmented activities, such as required multicultural courses or isolated field experiences, which often lack coherence and long-term impact. Although coursework and community-based placements can support preservice teachers’ awareness of diverse learners, evidence suggests that these efforts frequently fall short of transforming candidates’ racial literacy or challenging institutional hierarchies. Only a limited subset of programs adopt more systemic approaches that integrate equity across curricula, partnerships, supervision, and program structures.

The findings underscore the persistent gap between equity rhetoric and equity enactment in teacher preparation. Ko-Wong argues that meaningful progress requires programs to name and confront systemic racism, destabilize dominant ideologies such as color-evasiveness and meritocracy, and reimagine TEPs as sites of structural change rather than individual skill development. The review concludes with recommendations for advancing strong equity through conceptual clarity, coherent program design, and deeper engagement with racial justice frameworks.

Source (Open Access): Ko-Wong, L. (2025). Equity in Teacher Education Programs: A Systematic Review of Conceptions and Program-Level Efforts. Review of Educational Research, 00346543251382579.

https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543251382579… Read the rest