Tag: Meta-analysis

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K-12 Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

Social and Emotional Learning Programs and Students’ Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

A recent meta-analysis conducted by Hung and colleagues examined the effectiveness of school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs for K–12 students’ prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior is conceptualized as any voluntary behavior intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, comforting, and defending others. The researchers analyzed 66 studies and 157 effect sizes involving 52,914 youth.

Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges’ g, which includes a small sample bias correction to the effect size estimate to account for small studies. Because most studies contributed multiple effect sizes, the authors used a correlated effects (CE) model with robust variance estimation (RVE) to account for within-study dependence among effect sizes. Approach refers to whether an SEL program takes a curricular, interactional, structural, or combined approach. To examine whether the effect of SEL programs on prosocial behavior was moderated by sample, program, methodological, and publication characteristics, the authors conducted a mixed-effects meta-regression analysis with all moderators added to the model simultaneously. In total, they investigated 14 moderating variables such as approach, school level, urbanicity, and dosage.

The remaining moderating variables yielded no statistically significant differences. Results indicated that effects for rural, suburban, and combination areas were not statistically different from samples from urban areas. Results also indicated that effects were not statistically significantly different between samples with higher versus lower proportions of students qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch. Effects of curricular and curricular combined with structural or interactional approaches were not significantly different from SEL programs that only used an interactional approach. Findings indicated that effects of studies delivered at Tier 2 were not statistically different from Tier 1 studies. Studies that used a quasi-experimental design and single-group pre–post design yielded similar effects on prosocial behavior compared to studies that used a randomized controlled trial. Effects were similar across different types of prosocial behavior measures. Effects from studies that did not meet baseline equivalence were not statistically significantly different from studies that met baseline equivalence, and effects from studies that did not report implementation fidelity were not statistically significantly different from studies that reported fidelity of implementation. Results indicated that effects from studies conducted across earlier decades were not statistically significantly different from studies conducted more recently, and effects were similar for peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed studies.

The authors further noted that most studies were conducted with elementary school children (56%), the majority implemented universal Tier 1 interventions (89%), and a curricular approach was the most common (77%). Additionally, a considerable proportion of studies did not report key demographic data, with 71% failing to report free or reduced-price lunch rates.

A key implication for practice from this meta-analytic review is that school-based SEL programs are effective in promoting K–12 students’ prosocial behavior, and that “more is not necessarily better” — a moderate dosage and moderate duration may be most ideal. Future policy and practice should take into account this “less is more” finding. At the same time, more research is needed involving secondary schools, rural schools, non-curricular approaches, and diverse student populations in order to fully understand the effectiveness of SEL programs.

Source (Open Access): Hung, C., Brass, N. R., Brockmeier, L., Bergin, C., Imler, M., & Luper, S. B. (2026). Social and Emotional Learning Programs and Students’ Prosocial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 00346543261438462.

https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543261438462… Read the rest

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Primary School Education Social and Motivational Outcomes

Effects of virtual reality exercise on social skills and emotional recognition among children with autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

A meta-analysis by Cui and colleagues assessed the effects of virtual reality (VR) exercise on social skills (SS) and emotional recognition (ER) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Analysing data from randomized controlled trials published between January 2005 and October 2025 across PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and EBSCO databases, the authors investigated the relationship between VR exercise interventions and children’s social-emotional development outcomes.

The authors employed standardized mean difference (SMD) as the effect size, utilizing random-effects models to synthesize results across studies. VR exercise interventions were compared with standard treatment approaches. The methodology included comprehensive database searches using keywords: virtual reality, autism spectrum disorder, and children. Quality assessment followed Cochrane Handbook guidelines, with heterogeneity evaluated through I² statistics. Subgroup analyses examined intervention duration effects (< 14 weeks versus ≥ 14 weeks), and secondary outcomes included cognitive function, anxiety, language function, and depression.

The results revealed significant positive effects of VR exercise on SS (SMD = 0.94 [0.71, 1.17], p < 0.05, I² = 74%) and ER (SMD = 0.42 [0.18, 0.65], p < 0.05, I² = 0%). Furthermore, subgroup analysis demonstrated that interventions lasting less than 14 weeks (SMD = 0.63 [0.36, 0.91], p < 0.05, I² = 0%) and those exceeding 14 weeks (SMD = 1.70 [1.27, 2.13], p < 0.05, I² = 44%) both substantially improved SS, with longer interventions showing greater effect sizes. Additionally, VR exercise improved cognitive function (SMD = 0.49 [0.06, 0.93], p < 0.05, I² = 0%) and reduced anxiety (SMD = 0.56 [1.10, 0.02], p < 0.05, I² = 0%). Notably, effects on language function and depression remained unclear due to insufficient evidence.

The findings underscore the effectiveness of VR exercise as a technological intervention modality superior to standard treatment approaches in enhancing social-emotional competencies among children with ASD. Therefore, future clinical practice should consider integrating VR exercise interventions into rehabilitation programs for children with ASD, particularly emphasizing intervention duration optimization to maximize therapeutic benefits. The moderate effect sizes and cautious interpretation regarding cognitive and anxiety outcomes require validation through larger-scale longitudinal studies with standardized outcome measures.

Source (Open Access): Cui, T., Ariffin, R. B., Wang, X., & Wang, X. (2026). Effects of virtual reality exercise on social skills and emotional recognition among children with autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC psychology.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04160-x… Read the rest

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Achievement K-12 Education Maths and Science Learning

The Impact of Mathematics and Science Professional Development on Teacher Knowledge, Instruction, and Student Achievement

A recent meta-analysis by Lynch and colleagues examined the effectiveness of professional development (Professional Development) interventions for mathematics and science teachers in grades PK-12. Analyzing 200 effect sizes for teacher outcomes and 126 effect sizes for student achievement from 46 experimental studies published from 2001 to 2024, the authors investigated how PD programs affect teachers’ knowledge and classroom instruction, and whether these changes translate into improved student learning.

The authors employed Hedges’s g as the effect size metric, using randomized controlled trial designs to ensure causal inference. PD interventions were categorized by their focus areas: improving teacher knowledge (content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge), content-specific and content-general instructional strategies, and content-specific formative assessment. The researchers also examined contextual factors such as intervention duration, inclusion of curriculum materials, and school demographics.

The results revealed a significant positive impact of PD on teacher outcomes (pooled average: +0.52 SD). Specifically, teacher knowledge improved by +0.52 SD and classroom instruction by +0.49 SD. Importantly, programs with larger impacts on teacher outcomes also demonstrated significantly larger effects on student achievement. A 1 SD improvement in teacher-level outcomes was associated with a +0.18 SD gain in student achievement. Notably, improvements in classroom instruction showed a stronger link to student learning (+0.24 SD) than knowledge gains (+0.08 SD, not statistically significant). PD programs explicitly focusing on teacher knowledge development (effect size difference: +0.18 SD) and content-specific formative assessment (+0.27 SD) showed significantly stronger impacts on classroom instruction. Interestingly, intervention duration and the inclusion of curriculum materials did not significantly moderate outcomes.

The findings underscore that the quality and specific focus of professional development matter more than duration. Schools should prioritize PD programs that explicitly target both teacher knowledge and instructional practices, particularly emphasizing formative assessment strategies. The strong link between improved instruction and student achievement validates investments in high-quality professional development as a lever for enhancing educational outcomes in mathematics and science.

Source (Open Access): Lynch, K., Gonzalez, K., Hill, H., & Merritt, R. (2025). A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence linking mathematics and science professional development interventions to teacher knowledge, classroom instruction, and student achievement. AERA Open, 11, 23328584251335302.https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584251335302… Read the rest

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K-12 Education Programme Evaluation

Gender Disparity in Computational Thinking Pedagogy and Assessment: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Gender disparities in computational thinking (CT) education are widely acknowledged, but few meta-analyses have investigated how particular instructional approaches and assessment settings shape these differences. To address this research gap, Liu et al. (2025) conducted a meta-analysis of 53 empirical studies, covering 100 effect sizes and a total sample of 15,454 participants, to examine the overall magnitude of gender differences in CT education and the factors that may shape them. The findings show a small but statistically significant overall gender difference (g = 0.106, 95% CI [0.024, 0.188], p < .05), suggesting a slight advantage for males.

Regarding moderation effects, neither general study features (e.g., publication type, geographic region, and educational level) nor CT assessment contexts (e.g., the instrument used and the learning outcome measured) significantly altered the effect sizes. In contrast, pedagogical approaches did matter: technology-integrated strategies such as mixed and plugged approaches were linked to larger gender gaps favoring boys, whereas unplugged approaches tended to narrow the gap and sometimes even shifted the advantage toward girls. In terms of assessment, gender differences were not significant when CT concepts were measured, but they became significant when outcomes involved authentic practices (such as programming tasks) and identity-related dimensions (such as motivation, learning interest, and self-efficacy).

The results highlight clear implications for improving equity in CT education. Support should start early in K–12, with a particular focus on developing students’ CT practices and perspectives so that small gender gaps do not become persistent over time. Unplugged activities can serve as a low-barrier entry point, strengthening basic understanding and confidence, especially for girls. In addition, technology use should be introduced progressively: when digital and AI tools are scaffolded within supportive, culturally relevant learning settings, students may feel less anxious about technology and experience more inclusive participation.

 

Source (Open Access): Liu, S., Dai, Y., Ng, O. L., & Cai, Z. (2025). Gender Disparity in Computational Thinking Pedagogy and Assessment: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 37(4), 114.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-025-10095-3… Read the rest

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Language Development Maths and Science Learning Primary School Education

A systematic review and meta-analysis of ECEC process and structural quality and early primary academic competences

A protocol-guided systematic review and meta-analysis examined how components of early childhood education and care (ECEC) quality relate to children’s language and mathematics competences in the first two grades of primary school. 17 peer-reviewed studies met inclusion criteria, and 11 provided effect sizes for quantitative synthesis. The review addressed two questions: (1) To what extent do process and structural quality show direct associations with academic competences in grades 1 and 2, and do component-specific differences emerge across teacher–child relationships, interaction quality, classroom organization, instructional support, and pre-academic activities. (2) Do these associations vary across sample type, continent, or study quality when individual study characteristics are considered.

A meta-analytic approach was used to estimate pooled correlations. ECEC quality was operationalized as process quality and structural quality. Process quality included student–teacher relationships rated with the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale and observed interaction quality with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System, as well as classroom organization, instructional support, and targeted pre-academic activities in language and mathematics. Structural quality included class size, child–teacher ratio, teacher qualification, and global environment ratings. Academic competences were assessed with standardized tests or teacher reports in language and mathematics during grades 1 and 2.

Findings showed a small positive pooled association between student–teacher relationships and interaction quality and later academic competences (k = 8, N = 9,896, Δ = .11, p < .001, 95% CI [.05, .18]). Heterogeneity was high (Q = 40.91, p < .001; I² = 77.70%). Subgroup contrasts by continent, sample type, and study quality were not statistically significant. Pre-academic activities and supports also showed a small positive pooled association (k = 4, N = 1,856, Δ = .07, p < .001, 95% CI [.02, .11]) with negligible heterogeneity (Q = 1.07, p > .05; I² = .01%). Structural quality showed a pooled association that was not statistically significant and was highly heterogeneous (k = 3, N = 17,804, Q = 44.96, p < .001; I² = 93.94%). Publication bias tests suggested no small-study effects for the process and pre-academic models, while funnel asymmetry and a significant Egger test indicated bias for the structural model. At the study level, results were mixed. Some analyses linked closeness in kindergarten to later reading and linked teacher certification specific to early childhood to higher grade-1 reading and mathematics, while many associations for class size and child–teacher ratio were null.

This evidence base offers practical guidance for improving early learning trajectories. It underscores the importance of strengthening teacher–child relationships, enriching interaction quality, and implementing purposeful pre-academic activities that support early literacy and foundational mathematics. Structural inputs remain important as enabling conditions, yet clearer and more consistent measurement is needed to establish their longer-term academic links. The findings support professional development that targets relational competencies, classroom organization, and instructional support, together with careful design and implementation of pre-academic practices to promote equitable and effective learning outcomes.

 

Source (Open Access): Rademacher, A., Bäker, N., von Düring, U., Hiltunen, V., & Goagoses, N. (2025). The effects of early childhood education and care quality on academic competences in early primary school: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 40(4), 1-31.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-025-01005-w… Read the rest

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Effective Teaching Approach Kindergarten

Educational Robotics and Kindergarteners’ 4Cs Development

A recent meta-analysis by Sapounidis and colleagues examined the effects of Educational Robotics (ER) on the development of kindergarteners’ twenty-first century skills, namely communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity. From an initial pool of 2141 records, 22 empirical studies met inclusion criteria, yielding 53 effect sizes based on 2192 participants across 12 countries.

The authors applied a random-effects model, which revealed a significant overall positive impact of ER (Hedge’s g = +0.87). When analyzed separately, the strongest effect was observed for collaboration (g = 2.14), followed by critical thinking (g = 0.86), communication (g = 0.55), and creativity (g = 0.51). Despite notable heterogeneity (I² > 79% across domains) and some publication bias, the results consistently indicated that robotics-based interventions may enhance young learners’ social and cognitive capacities. A meta-regression further showed that longer intervention durations were associated with stronger positive effects, highlighting the importance of sustained engagement with robotics activities.

The findings suggest that ER is particularly powerful in promoting collaborative and critical thinking skills, where children engage in teamwork, problem-solving, and reasoning activities with peers and robots. Communication can also be supported by encouraging idea sharing, while creativity—though less studied—emerges as an area of potential growth if adequately scaffolded.

This study fills a critical gap in early childhood education research, as previous meta-analyses often overlooked kindergarten populations or mixed them with higher age groups. The authors recommend developing tailored robotics curricula and teacher training programs to maximize ER’s benefits. Overall, ER appears to be a promising educational tool for fostering holistic skill development in early childhood.

Source (Open Access): Sapounidis, T., Rapti, S., & Vaiopoulou, J. (2025). Effects of educational robotics on kindergarteners’ collaboration, communication, critical Thinking, and creativity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 34, 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-024-10149-1… Read the rest